Changes

===Brainstem and Mastication===

===Brainstem and Mastication===

[[File:Segmentazione Trigeminale.jpg|left|thumb|500x500px|'''Figure 2:''' Segmentation of Trigeminal Nervousus System ]]

[[File:Segmentazione Trigeminale.jpg|left|thumb|500px|'''Figure 2:''' Segmentation of Trigeminal Nervousus System]]

The brainstem district is a relay area that connects the upper centres of the brain, the cerebellum, and the spinal cord, and provides the main sensory and motor innervation of the face, head, and neck through the cranial nerves.  

The brainstem district is a relay area that connects the upper centres of the brain, the cerebellum, and the spinal cord, and provides the main sensory and motor innervation of the face, head, and neck through the cranial nerves.  

This plays a determining role in regulation of respiration, locomotion, posture, balance, excitement (including intestinal control, bladder, blood pressure, and heart rate). It is responsible for regulating numerous reflexes, including swallowing, coughing, and vomiting. The brainstem is controlled by higher Cerebral Centers from cortical and subcortical regions, including the Basal Ganglia Nuclei and Diencephal, as well as feedback loops from the cerebellum and spinal cord. Neuromodulation can be achieved by the ‘classical’ mode of glutammatergic neurotransmitters and GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) through a primary excitation and inhibition of the ‘anatomical network’, but can also be achieved through the use of transmitters acting on G-proteins. These neuromodulators include the monoamine (serotonine, noradrenaline, and dopamine) acetylcholine, as also glutamate and GABA. In addition, not only do neuropeptides and purines act as neuromodulators, so do other chemical mediators like Growth Factors which, too can have similar actions..<ref>Mascaro, M.B., et al., ''Forebrain projections to brainstem nuclei involved in the control of mandibular movements in rats.'' Eur J Oral Sci, 2009. 117(6): p. 676-84. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Forebrain+projections+to+brainstem+nuclei+involved+in+the+control+of+mandibular+movements+in+rats.+Eur+J+Oral+Sci%2C+2009</ref>  

This plays a determining role in regulation of respiration, locomotion, posture, balance, excitement (including intestinal control, bladder, blood pressure, and heart rate). It is responsible for regulating numerous reflexes, including swallowing, coughing, and vomiting. The brainstem is controlled by higher Cerebral Centers from cortical and subcortical regions, including the Basal Ganglia Nuclei and Diencephal, as well as feedback loops from the cerebellum and spinal cord. Neuromodulation can be achieved by the ‘classical’ mode of glutammatergic neurotransmitters and GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) through a primary excitation and inhibition of the ‘anatomical network’, but can also be achieved through the use of transmitters acting on G-proteins. These neuromodulators include the monoamine (serotonine, noradrenaline, and dopamine) acetylcholine, as also glutamate and GABA. In addition, not only do neuropeptides and purines act as neuromodulators, so do other chemical mediators like Growth Factors which, too can have similar actions..<ref>{{Cite book

| autore = Mascaro MB

| titolo = Forebrain projections to brainstem nuclei involved in the control of mandibular movements in rats

| url = https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0722.2009.00686.x

| opera = Eur J Oral Sci

| DOI = 10.1111/j.1600-0722.2009.00686.x

}}</ref>  

The neural network described above does not end with the only correlation between trigeminal somatosensory centres and other motor areas but also strays into the amigdaloidei processes through a correlation with the trigeminal brainstem area. The amygdala becomes active from fear, playing an important role in the emotional response to life-threatening situations. When lab rats feel threatened, they respond by biting ferociously. The force of the bite is regulated by the motor nuclei of the trigeminal system and trigeminal brainstem Me5. The Me5 transmits proprioceptive signals from the Masticatory muscles and parodontal ligaments to trigeminal nuclei and motors. Central Amygdaloid Nucleus (ACe) projections send connections to the trigeminal motor nucleus and reticular premotor formation and directly to the Me5.

The neural network described above does not end with the only correlation between trigeminal somatosensory centres and other motor areas but also strays into the amigdaloidei processes through a correlation with the trigeminal brainstem area. The amygdala becomes active from fear, playing an important role in the emotional response to life-threatening situations. When lab rats feel threatened, they respond by biting ferociously. The force of the bite is regulated by the motor nuclei of the trigeminal system and trigeminal brainstem Me5. The Me5 transmits proprioceptive signals from the Masticatory muscles and parodontal ligaments to trigeminal nuclei and motors. Central Amygdaloid Nucleus (ACe) projections send connections to the trigeminal motor nucleus and reticular premotor formation and directly to the Me5.