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We would like our reader to have an immediate perception of the topics that will be debated in '''[[Masticationpedia]]'''; we will review some of the most current issues concerning the epistemological evolution of science in general, and medical as well as dental medicine in particular. {{#ifexpr: {{#isloggedin:}} > 0
''We would like our reader to have an immediate perception of the topics that will be debated in '''[[Masticationpedia]]'''; we will review some of the most current issues concerning the epistemological evolution of science in general, and medical as well as dental medicine in particular. <br><br>You can also watch a [https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLYlmVJLgEzIeVdFudy_8VImh1x0riDiTc video of ours] on Youtube, for your convenience. ''
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<p class="titolo"><b>Introduction</b></p>
[[File:Videospot.png|thumb|'''[https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLYlmVJLgEzIeVdFudy_8VImh1x0riDiTc Introduction to Masticationpedia]'''|link=https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLYlmVJLgEzIeVdFudy_8VImh1x0riDiTc]]
</div>
In this phase we will consider two fundamental aspects of '''Progress of Science''', according to the '''Kuhn Paradigms''', and '''Epistemology''' which questions the concepts of "Statistical Inference" and "Interdisciplinarity".
In this phase we will consider the two fundamental aspects of '''Progress of Science''', according to the '''Kuhn Paradigms''', and '''Epistemology''' which questions the concepts of "Statistical Inference" and "Interdisciplinarity".
These two themes, which apparently seem to be in conflict with each other, as the first one needs ''disciplinarity'' to highlight the "Anomalies in the Paradigm" and the second needs "''Interdisciplinarity''", they will integrate through a resolving element that consists of "''metacognitive scaffolds''", i.e. cognitive bridges between specialist disciplines. In this context, therefore, the reader will be better able to appreciate the ''stochastic approach'' towards one of the most controversial topics in masticatory rehabilitations, such as, "'''Malocclusion'''", from which come most of the masticatory rehabilitation procedures such as orthodontics, prosthesis and orthognathic surgery.
These two themes, which apparently seem to be in conflict with each other, as the first one needs ''disciplinarity'' to highlight the "Anomalies in the Paradigm" and the second needs "''Interdisciplinarity''", they will integrate through a resolving element that consists of "''metacognitive scaffolds''", i.e. cognitive bridges between specialist disciplines. In this context, therefore, the reader will be better able to appreciate the ''stochastic approach'' towards one of the most controversial topics in masticatory rehabilitations, such as, "'''Malocclusion'''", from which come most of the masticatory rehabilitation procedures such as orthodontics, prosthesis and orthognathic surgery.
| DOI = 10.1177/2380084419879391
| DOI = 10.1177/2380084419879391
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}} Oct 7:2380084419879391</ref>; these innovations have in some way influenced decision-making strategies, opinions, schools of thought and axioms in order to improve quality of life, as stated in the "''Exposure Science in the 21st Century''"<ref>{{cita libro
}}</ref>; these innovations have in some way influenced decision-making strategies, opinions, schools of thought and axioms in order to improve quality of life, as stated in the "''Exposure Science in the 21st Century''"<ref>{{cita libro
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| DOI = 10.1358/dot.2014.50.1.2076506
| DOI = 10.1358/dot.2014.50.1.2076506
| OCLC =
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}} Jan;50(1):33-50</ref>
}}</ref>
[[File:The phases of paradigm change according to Thomas Kuhn.jpg|right|thumb|The phases of paradigm change according to Thomas Kuhn]]
[[File:The phases of paradigm change according to Thomas Kuhn.jpg|right|thumb|The phases of paradigm change according to Thomas Kuhn]]
The two sensitive aspects of the current social, scientific and clinical reality (which seem to conflict with each other, but as we will see at the end of this reading will be complementary) are the "Progress of Science" according to Kuhn and the "Epistemology".
The two sensitive aspects of the current social, scientific and clinical reality (which seem to conflict with each other, but as we will see at the end of this reading will be complementary) are the "Progress of Science" according to Kuhn and the "Epistemology".
As a good problem solver, the scientist tries to solve these anomalies.
As a good problem solver, the scientist tries to solve these anomalies.
=== Kuhn's phases in Dentistry===
Kuhn, however, divides the evolution of a paradigm into '''five phases'''; this is a fundamental process for Masticationpedia, but to keep tuned with the project, we will limit ourselves to describing the two most significant phases:
Kuhn, however, divides the evolution of a paradigm into '''five phases'''; this is a fundamental process for Masticationpedia, but to keep tuned with the project, we will limit ourselves to describing the two most significant phases:
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| align="right" width="250" |<small>''The black swan symbolizes one of the historical problems of epistemology: if all the swans we have seen so far are white, can we decide that all the swans are white?<br>Really?''</small>
| width="250" align="right" |<small>''The black swan symbolizes one of the historical problems of epistemology: if all the swans we have seen so far are white, can we decide that all the swans are white?<br>Really?''</small>
| align="center" |[[File:Black_Swan_(Cygnus_atratus)_RWD.jpg|175px|center]]
| align="center" |[[File:Black_Swan_(Cygnus_atratus)_RWD.jpg|175px|center]]
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|-
| DOI = 10.1017/S0140525X18000869
| DOI = 10.1017/S0140525X18000869
| OCLC =
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}} Jan;41:e150. </ref>
}}</ref>
The Hempel paradox tells us that each sighted white swan confirms that crows are black<ref>Here we obviously refer to the well-known paradox called "of the crows", or "of the black crows", formulated by the philosopher and mathematician [[:wikipedia:Carl Gustav Hempel|Carl Gustav Hempel]], better explained in Wikipedia's article ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raven_paradox&oldid=942633026 Raven paradox]'':<br>See {{cita libro
The Hempel paradox tells us that each sighted white swan confirms that crows are black<ref>Here we obviously refer to the well-known paradox called "of the crows", or "of the black crows", formulated by the philosopher and mathematician [[:wikipedia:Carl Gustav Hempel|Carl Gustav Hempel]], better explained in Wikipedia's article ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raven_paradox&oldid=942633026 Raven paradox]'':<br>See {{cita libro
| DOI = 10.1016/j.csbj.2015.12.001
| DOI = 10.1016/j.csbj.2015.12.001
| OCLC =
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}} Jan 7;14:91-6. </ref>
}}</ref>
{{qnq|But it’s not all so obvious...}}
{{qnq|But it’s not all so obvious...}}
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*'''''<math>P-value</math>''''': <br>In medicine, for example, to confirm an experiment, a series of data coming from laboratory instruments or from surveys, the "''Statistical Inference''" is used, and in particular a famous value called "significance test" (<math>P-value</math>). Well, even this concept, now part of the researcher's genesis, is wavering. In a recent study, attention was focused on a "Campaign" conducted on "Nature" against the concept of "significance tests"<ref>{{cita libro
*'''''<math>P-value</math>''''': <br>In medicine, for example, to confirm an experiment, a series of data coming from laboratory instruments or from surveys, the "''Statistical Inference''" is used, and in particular a famous value called "significance test" (P-value). Well, even this concept, now part of the researcher's genesis, is wavering. In a recent study, attention was focused on a "Campaign" conducted on "Nature" against the concept of "significance tests"<ref>{{cita libro
| autore = Amrhein V
| autore = Amrhein V
| autore2 = Greenland S
| autore2 = Greenland S
| DOI = 10.1038/d41586-019-00857-9
| DOI = 10.1038/d41586-019-00857-9
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}} Mar;567(7748):305-307.</ref>.<br />With over 800 signatories supporting important scientists, this "campaign" can be considered an important milestone and a "Silent Revolution" in statistics on logical and epistemological aspects<ref>{{cita libro
}}</ref>.<br />With over 800 signatories supporting important scientists, this "campaign" can be considered an important milestone and a "Silent Revolution" in statistics on logical and epistemological aspects<ref>{{cita libro
| autore = Rodgers JL
| autore = Rodgers JL
| titolo = The epistemology of mathematical and statistical modeling: a quiet methodological revolution
| titolo = The epistemology of mathematical and statistical modeling: a quiet methodological revolution
| DOI = 10.1037/a0018326
| DOI = 10.1037/a0018326
| OCLC =
| OCLC =
}} Jan;65(1):1-12.</ref><ref>{{cita libro
}}</ref><ref>{{cita libro
| autore = Meehl P
| autore = Meehl P
| titolo = The problem is epistemology, not statistics: replace significance tests by confidence intervals and quantify accuracy of risky numerical predictions
| titolo = The problem is epistemology, not statistics: replace significance tests by confidence intervals and quantify accuracy of risky numerical predictions
| DOI = 10.1080/00031305.2019.1583913
| DOI = 10.1080/00031305.2019.1583913
| OCLC =
| OCLC =
}} 73, 1–19. </ref>. The special question proposes both new ways to signal the importance of research results beyond the arbitrary threshold of a P-value, and some guides to conduct of research: the researcher should accept uncertainty, be reflective, open and modest in his/ her statements<ref name="wasser" />. Future will show whether or not those attempts to statistically better support science beyond the significance tests will be reflected in future publications<ref>{{cita libro
}}</ref>. The special question proposes both new ways to signal the importance of research results beyond the arbitrary threshold of a P-value, and some guides to conduct of research: the researcher should accept uncertainty, be reflective, open and modest in his/ her statements<ref name="wasser" />. Future will show whether or not those attempts to statistically better support science beyond the significance tests will be reflected in future publications<ref>{{cita libro
| autore = Dettweiler Ulrich
| autore = Dettweiler Ulrich
| titolo = The Rationality of Science and the Inevitability of Defining Prior Beliefs in Empirical Research
| titolo = The Rationality of Science and the Inevitability of Defining Prior Beliefs in Empirical Research
| DOI = 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01866
| DOI = 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01866
| OCLC =
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}} Aug 13;10:1866.</ref>. In this field too, we are on the same wavelength as the Progress of Science according to Kuhn, in that we are talking about the re-modulation of some descriptive statistical contents within the scope of disciplinarity.
}}</ref>. In this field too, we are on the same wavelength as the Progress of Science according to Kuhn, in that we are talking about the re-modulation of some descriptive statistical contents within the scope of disciplinarity.
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| DOI = 10.1007/s13194-018-0242-4
| DOI = 10.1007/s13194-018-0242-4
| OCLC =
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}} 9(1):16.</ref><ref>{{cita libro
}}</ref><ref>{{cita libro
| autore = Boon M
| autore = Boon M
| titolo = An engineering paradigm in the biomedical sciences: Knowledge as epistemic tool
| titolo = An engineering paradigm in the biomedical sciences: Knowledge as epistemic tool
| DOI = 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2017.04.001
| DOI = 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2017.04.001
| OCLC =
| OCLC =
}} Oct;129:25-39.</ref>
}}</ref>
|}
|}
==Anomaly ''vs.'' Interdisciplinarity==
==P-value ''vs.'' Interdisciplinarity==
Given the above, on a superficial view of the epistemic evolution of the Science, the two aspects of disciplinarity ("''Physics Paradigm of Science''", highlighting the anomaly) and Interdisciplinary ("''Engineering Paradigm of Science''", metacognitive scaffold), might seem to be in conflict with each other; in reality, however, as we are just going to see right in this chapter, they are two sides of the same coin because both tend to generate "Paradigmatic Innovation" without any conflict at all.
Given the above, on a superficial view of the epistemic evolution of the Science, the two aspects of disciplinarity ("''Physics Paradigm of Science''", highlighting the anomaly) and Interdisciplinary ("''Engineering Paradigm of Science''", metacognitive scaffold), might seem to be in conflict with each other; in reality, however, as we are just going to see right in this chapter, they are two sides of the same coin because both tend to generate "Paradigmatic Innovation" without any conflict at all.
| città =
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| ISBN =
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| PMID = 29114433
| PMCID = PMC5624148
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| DOI = 10.17096/jiufd.04646
| DOI = 10.17096/jiufd.04646
| OCLC =
| OCLC =
}} 51(3): 64–71. Published online 2017 Oct 2. PMCID: PMC5624148 - PMID: 29114433 </ref> The innovations mentioned by Guven are obviously to be considered as technological and methodological in nature; however, the Progress of Science does not move forward with this kind of Innovations, which are called "''Incremental Innovations''" and "''Radical Innovations''", but it occurs substantially through "''Paradigmatic Innovations''".
}}</ref> The innovations mentioned by Guven are obviously to be considered as technological and methodological in nature; however, the Progress of Science does not move forward with this kind of Innovations, which are called "''Incremental Innovations''" and "''Radical Innovations''", but it occurs substantially through "''Paradigmatic Innovations''".
In the strictest sense of the phrase, "Paradigmatic Innovations" are essentially '''a change of thought and awareness''' that pervades the whole of humanity, starting from different social strata, from the Copernican scientific revolution to the current trend of Stochastic approach to the biological phenomenon<ref>{{cita libro
In the strictest sense of the phrase, "Paradigmatic Innovations" are essentially '''a change of thought and awareness''' that pervades the whole of humanity, starting from different social strata, from the Copernican scientific revolution to the current trend of Stochastic approach to the biological phenomenon<ref>{{cita libro
| città =
| città =
| ISBN =
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| PMID = 19918331
| PMCID = PMC2776262
| LCCN =
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| DOI =
| DOI =
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| OCLC =
}} Prepublished online 2009 Oct 10. PMCID: PMC2776262 - PMID: 19918331. 3(1): 75–86.</ref>.
}}</ref>.
In this epistemological context (in addition to other initiatives such as the ''Research Diagnostic Criteria'' in the field of the Temporomandibular Disorders — RDC/TMDs), of the Evidence Based Medicine (and other), the Masticationpedia project inserts itself in order to highlight the dialectics dynamism about the progress of the masticatory rehabilitation science. Masticationpedia tends, moreover, to highlight the anomalies that inevitably stimulate a change of thought and therefore a "Paradigmatic Innovation".
In this epistemological context (in addition to other initiatives such as the ''Research Diagnostic Criteria'' in the field of the Temporomandibular Disorders — RDC/TMDs), of the Evidence Based Medicine (and other), the Masticationpedia project inserts itself in order to highlight the dialectics dynamism about the progress of the masticatory rehabilitation science. Masticationpedia tends, moreover, to highlight the anomalies that inevitably stimulate a change of thought and therefore a "Paradigmatic Innovation".
| DOI =
| DOI =
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}}, 30(1):18. </ref>. The ''closure'' is easy to understand, we believe, but the epithet "''bad''" must be understood with care as well, because it is not as simple as it seems.
}}</ref>. The ''closure'' is easy to understand, we believe, but the epithet "''bad''" must be understood with care as well, because it is not as simple as it seems.
To briefly grasp the concept, in this first introductory reading we will try to present a simple but highly debatable question that involves a series of other questions in the field of masticatory rehabilitation and especially in orthodontic disciplines: ''what is "Malocclusion"?'' Bear in mind that in 2019, a Pubmed query about this term returned a result of "only" 33,309 articles<ref>Pubmed, ''[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=%22malocclusion%22 Malocclusion]''</ref>, which says it all about the hypothetical terminological agreement on the subject; and, therefore, very meaningful conclusions could be drawn every now and then from these articles, such as the ones we reproduce in full from an article by Smaglyuk and collaborators, a somewhat "sensational" article that deals with the interdisciplinary approach in the diagnosis of malocclusions<ref name="Smaglyuk">{{cita libro
To briefly grasp the concept, in this first introductory reading we will try to present a simple but highly debatable question that involves a series of other questions in the field of masticatory rehabilitation and especially in orthodontic disciplines: ''what is "Malocclusion"?'' Bear in mind that in 2019, a Pubmed query about this term returned a result of "only" 33,309 articles<ref>Pubmed, ''[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=%22malocclusion%22 Malocclusion]''</ref>, which says it all about the hypothetical terminological agreement on the subject; and, therefore, very meaningful conclusions could be drawn every now and then from these articles, such as the ones we reproduce in full from an article by Smaglyuk and collaborators, a somewhat "sensational" article that deals with the interdisciplinary approach in the diagnosis of malocclusions<ref name="Smaglyuk">{{cita libro
| DOI =
| DOI =
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}} 72(5 cz 1):918-922.
}}</ref>:
</ref>:
{{q2|The diagnostics, treatment tactics and prevention of dento-facial anomalies and deformations should be considered in the context of the integrity of the child's unformed organism, the interdependence of the form and functions of its organs and systems}}
{{q2|The diagnostics, treatment tactics and prevention of dento-facial anomalies and deformations should be considered in the context of the integrity of the child's unformed organism, the interdependence of the form and functions of its organs and systems}}
| DOI = 10.1111/adj.12475
| DOI = 10.1111/adj.12475
| OCLC =
| OCLC =
}} Mar;62 Suppl 1:51-57.</ref>; it is a malocclusion that can be treated with a fixed orthodontic therapy and possibly in combination with an orthognathic intervention<ref>{{cita libro
}}</ref>; it is a malocclusion that can be treated with a fixed orthodontic therapy and possibly in combination with an orthognathic intervention<ref>{{cita libro
| autore = Reichert I
| autore = Reichert I
| autore2 = Figel P
| autore2 = Figel P
| DOI = 10.1007/s10006-013-0430-5
| DOI = 10.1007/s10006-013-0430-5
| OCLC =
| OCLC =
}} Sep;18(3):271-7. </ref>. Crossbite is another element of disturbance in normal occlusion because of which it is obligatorily treated together with the openbite<ref>{{cita libro
}}</ref>. Crossbite is another element of disturbance in normal occlusion because of which it is obligatorily treated together with the openbite<ref>{{cita libro
| autore = Miamoto CB
| autore = Miamoto CB
| autore2 = Silva Marques L
| autore2 = Silva Marques L
| DOI =
| DOI =
| OCLC =
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}} Jan-Feb; 23(1) 71–78.</ref><ref>{{cita libro
}}</ref><ref>{{cita libro
| autore = Alachioti XS
| autore = Alachioti XS
| autore2 = Dimopoulou E
| autore2 = Dimopoulou E
| DOI = 10.4103/2278-0203.127547
| DOI = 10.4103/2278-0203.127547
| OCLC =
| OCLC =
}} Jan-Mar; 3(1): 1–6.</ref><ref>{{cita libro
}}</ref><ref>{{cita libro
| autore = Mizrahi E
| autore = Mizrahi E
| titolo = A review of anterior open bite
| titolo = A review of anterior open bite
| DOI =
| DOI =
| OCLC =
| OCLC =
}} Jan;5(1):21-7.</ref>.
}}</ref>.
It is self-evident that an observer with a ''deterministic mindset'' facing a phenomenon of such evident occlusal incongruity considers crossbite and openbite the cause of malocclusion (cause/effect) or vice versa; and it is obvious, as well, that the observer recommends an orthodontic treatment to restore a “Normocclusion”. This way of reasoning means that the model (masticatory system) is “normalized to occlusion”; and if read backwards, it means that the occlusal discrepancy is the cause of malocclusion and, therefore, of disease of the Masticatory System. (Figure 1a).
It is self-evident that an observer with a ''deterministic mindset'' facing a phenomenon of such evident occlusal incongruity considers crossbite and openbite the cause of malocclusion (cause/effect) or vice versa; and it is obvious, as well, that the observer recommends an orthodontic treatment to restore a “Normocclusion”. This way of reasoning means that the model (masticatory system) is “normalized to occlusion”; and if read backwards, it means that the occlusal discrepancy is the cause of malocclusion and, therefore, of disease of the Masticatory System. (Figure 1a).
| DOI = 10.1007/978-94-007-2260-6
| DOI = 10.1007/978-94-007-2260-6
| OCLC =
| OCLC =
}}.</ref>
}}</ref>
In the presented case, the question is resolved in the following language logic:
In the presented case, the question is resolved in the following language logic:
| DOI = 10.1016/j.joms.2016.06.001
| DOI = 10.1016/j.joms.2016.06.001
| OCLC =
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}} Oct;74(10):2066.e1-2066.e12.</ref><ref>{{cita libro
}}</ref><ref>{{cita libro
| autore = Hoffmannová J
| autore = Hoffmannová J
| autore2 = Foltán R
| autore2 = Foltán R
| città =
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| PMID = 19537679
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}} 109(4):286-97.</ref>
}}</ref>
These are just some of the topics that will be covered extensively both in this chapter and in what we call “Extraordinary Science”. Meanwhile, in a fitting diversion our colourful friend ''Linus Sapiens'', the little yellow man on the left, asks us:
These are just some of the topics that will be covered extensively both in this chapter and in what we call “Extraordinary Science”. Meanwhile, in a fitting diversion our colourful friend ''Linus Sapiens'', the little yellow man on the left, asks us:
{{q4|What do we mean by “Complex Systems” when we are talking about masticatory functions?}}
{{q4|What do we mean by “Complex Systems” when we are talking about masticatory functions? |Not a trivial question, let's start talking, then, about [[the logic of medical language]]}}
{{Btnav|Welcome|The logic of medical language}}
{{Btnav|Welcome|The logic of medical language}}
{{Bib}}
{{Bib}}
{{apm}}[[Category:Introduction]]
{{apm}}[[Category:Introduction]]
[[Category:Articles about epistemology]]
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