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''We would like our reader to have an immediate perception of the topics that will be debated in '''[[Masticationpedia]]'''; we will review some of the most current issues concerning the epistemological evolution of science in general, and medical as well as dental medicine in particular. <br><br>You can also watch a [https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLYlmVJLgEzIeVdFudy_8VImh1x0riDiTc video of ours] on Youtube, for your convenience. ''

''我們希望我們的讀者對將在 '''[[Masticationpedia]]''' 中辯論的話題有一個直接的認識； 我們將回顧一些關於一般科學的認識論演變的最新問題，特別是醫學和牙科醫學。 <br><br>為了您的方便，您還可以在 Youtube 上觀看 [https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLYlmVJLgEzIeVdFudy_8VImh1x0riDiTc 視頻] ''

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<p class="titolo"><b>Introduction</b></p>

<p class="titolo"><b>介紹</b></p>

[[File:Videospot.png|thumb|'''[https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLYlmVJLgEzIeVdFudy_8VImh1x0riDiTc Introduction to Masticationpedia]'''|link=https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLYlmVJLgEzIeVdFudy_8VImh1x0riDiTc]]

[[File:Videospot.png|thumb|'''[https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLYlmVJLgEzIeVdFudy_8VImh1x0riDiTc 咀嚼百科簡介]'''|link=https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLYlmVJLgEzIeVdFudy_8VImh1x0riDiTc]]

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These two themes, which apparently seem to be in conflict with each other, as the first one needs ''disciplinarity'' to highlight the "Anomalies in the Paradigm" and the second needs "''Interdisciplinarity''", they will integrate through a resolving element that consists of "''metacognitive scaffolds''", i.e. cognitive bridges between specialist disciplines. In this context, therefore, the reader will be better able to appreciate the ''stochastic approach'' towards one of the most controversial topics in masticatory rehabilitations, such as, "'''Malocclusion'''", from which come most of the masticatory rehabilitation procedures such as orthodontics, prosthesis and orthognathic surgery.

These two themes, which apparently seem to be in conflict with each other, as the first one needs ''disciplinarity'' to highlight the "Anomalies in the Paradigm" and the second needs "''Interdisciplinarity''", they will integrate through a resolving element that consists of "''metacognitive scaffolds''", i.e. cognitive bridges between specialist disciplines. In this context, therefore, the reader will be better able to appreciate the ''stochastic approach'' towards one of the most controversial topics in masticatory rehabilitations, such as, "'''Malocclusion'''", from which come most of the masticatory rehabilitation procedures such as orthodontics, prosthesis and orthognathic surgery.

{{ArtBy|autore=Gianni Frisardi}}

{{ArtBy|autore=Gianni Frisardi}}

==Ab ovo<ref>Latin for "since the very beginning"</ref>==

==Ab ovo<ref>拉丁語“從一開始”</ref>==

Before getting to the heart of the Masticationpedia treatment, a premise is appropriate, that mainly concerns two aspects of the social, scientific and clinical reality of the current and the immediately preceding era.

在進入 Masticationpedia 治療的核心之前，有一個前提是合適的，它主要涉及當前和前一個時代的社會、科學和臨床現實的兩個方面。

In the last century, we witnessed exponential growth in technological and methodological "Innovations" specifically in dentistry<ref>{{cita libro  

在上個世紀，我們目睹了技術和方法“創新”的指數級增長，特別是在牙科領域<ref>{{cita libro  

  | autore = Heft MW

  | autore = Heft MW

  | autore2 = Fox CH

  | autore2 = Fox CH

  | DOI = 10.1177/2380084419879391

  | DOI = 10.1177/2380084419879391

  | OCLC =  

  | OCLC =  

  }}</ref>; these innovations have in some way influenced decision-making strategies, opinions, schools of thought and axioms in order to improve quality of life, as stated in the "''Exposure Science in the 21st Century''"<ref>{{cita libro  

  }}</ref>; 這些創新在某種程度上影響了決策策略、觀點、思想流派和公理，以提高生活質量，如“21 世紀的暴露科學”所述<ref>{{cita libro  

  | autore =  

  | autore =  

  | autore2 =  

  | autore2 =  

  | DOI =  

  | DOI =  

  | OCLC =  

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  }}</ref>. However, this exponential growth brings with it, implicitly, conceptual gray areas (in practical terms "side effects") which are sometimes underestimated, but which may call into question some Scientific Certainties or make them less absolute and more probabilistic.<ref>{{cita libro  

  }}</ref>. 然而，這種指數增長隱含地帶來了概念灰色區域（實際上是“副作用”），這些區域有時被低估，但可能會質疑某些科學確定性或使它們不那麼絕對和更多概率。<ref>{{cita libro  

  | autore = Liu L

  | autore = Liu L

  | autore2 = Li Y

  | autore2 = Li Y

  | OCLC =  

  | OCLC =  

  }}</ref>

  }}</ref>

[[File:The phases of paradigm change according to Thomas Kuhn.jpg|right|thumb|The phases of paradigm change according to Thomas Kuhn]]

[[File:The phases of paradigm change according to Thomas Kuhn.jpg|right|thumb|托馬斯·庫恩 (Thomas Kuhn) 的範式變化階段]]

==Progress of Science according to Thomas Kuhn==

==托馬斯庫恩的科學進步==

'''Thomas Kuhn''' in his most famous work states that ''science cyclically passes through some phases indicative of its operation''.<ref>Thomas Samuel Kuhn (Cincinnati, 18 july 1922 – Cambridge, 17 june 1996) was an American philosopher of science.<br>See Treccani, ''[http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/thomas-samuel-kuhn/ Kuhn, Thomas Samuel]''. Wikipedia, ''[[:wikipedia:Thomas Kuhn|Thomas Kuhn]]''.

'''Thomas Kuhn''' in his most famous work states that ''science cyclically passes through some phases indicative of its operation''.<ref>Thomas Samuel Kuhn (Cincinnati, 18 七月 1922 – Cambridge, 17 六月 1996) 是一位美國科學哲學家.<br>看 Treccani, ''[http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/thomas-samuel-kuhn/ Kuhn, Thomas Samuel]''. Wikipedia, ''[[:wikipedia:Thomas Kuhn|Thomas Kuhn]]''.

</ref><ref>{{cita libro  

</ref><ref>{{cita libro  

  | autore = Kuhn Thomas S

  | autore = Kuhn Thomas S

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*<u>'''''Phase 5'''''</u>, or the '''Scientific Revolution'''<br>Phase 5 deals with the (scientific) revolution. In the period of extraordinary scientific activities, a discussion will open within the scientific community on which new paradigm to accept. But it will not necessarily be the most "true" or most efficient paradigm to come to the fore, but the one that will be able to capture the interest of a sufficient number of scientists and to gain the trust of the scientific community. <br>The paradigms that participate in this clash, according to Kuhn, share nothing, not even the bases and, therefore, are not comparable (they are "immeasurable"). The paradigm is chosen, as said, on socio-psychological or biological basis (young scientists replace older ones). The battle between paradigms will resolve the crisis, the new paradigm will be named and science will be brought back to Phase 1. <br>For the same principle of Phase 4, Masticationpedia will propose, in the chapter titled ''Extraordinary science'', a '''new paradigmatic model in the field of rehabilitation of the Masticatory System''' discussing its principles, motivations, clinical scientific experiences and, above all, a ''radical change'' in the field of medical diagnostics. This change is essentially based on '''System Inference''', rather than on Symptom Inference, giving mainly absolute value to the objectivity of the data.

*<u>'''''階段 5'''''</u>, or the '''Scientific Revolution'''<br>Phase 5 deals with the (scientific) revolution. In the period of extraordinary scientific activities, a discussion will open within the scientific community on which new paradigm to accept. But it will not necessarily be the most "true" or most efficient paradigm to come to the fore, but the one that will be able to capture the interest of a sufficient number of scientists and to gain the trust of the scientific community. <br>The paradigms that participate in this clash, according to Kuhn, share nothing, not even the bases and, therefore, are not comparable (they are "immeasurable"). The paradigm is chosen, as said, on socio-psychological or biological basis (young scientists replace older ones). The battle between paradigms will resolve the crisis, the new paradigm will be named and science will be brought back to Phase 1. <br>For the same principle of Phase 4, Masticationpedia will propose, in the chapter titled ''Extraordinary science'', a '''new paradigmatic model in the field of rehabilitation of the Masticatory System''' discussing its principles, motivations, clinical scientific experiences and, above all, a ''radical change'' in the field of medical diagnostics. This change is essentially based on '''System Inference''', rather than on Symptom Inference, giving mainly absolute value to the objectivity of the data.

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It is almost obvious that Kuhnian scientific philosophy prefers disciplinarity, as an anomaly in the genomic paradigm will be noticed better by a geneticist than by a neurophysiologist. Now this concept would seem to be in contrast with the epistemological evolution of Science, so it is better to stop a minute upon it in detail.

It is almost obvious that Kuhnian scientific philosophy prefers disciplinarity, as an anomaly in the genomic paradigm will be noticed better by a geneticist than by a neurophysiologist. Now this concept would seem to be in contrast with the epistemological evolution of Science, so it is better to stop a minute upon it in detail.

==Epistemology==

==認識論==

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| width="250" align="right" |<small>''The black swan symbolizes one of the historical problems of epistemology: if all the swans we have seen so far are white, can we decide that all the swans are white?<br>Really?''</small>

| width="250" align="right" |<small>''黑天鵝象徵著認識論的歷史問題之一：如果我們迄今為止看到的所有天鵝都是白色的，我們是否可以決定所有的天鵝都是白色的？<br>Really?''</small>

| align="center" |[[File:Black_Swan_(Cygnus_atratus)_RWD.jpg|175px|center]]

| align="center" |[[File:Black_Swan_(Cygnus_atratus)_RWD.jpg|175px|center]]

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'''Epistemology''' (from the Greek ἐπιστήμη, ''epistème'', "certain knowledge" or "science", and λόγος, ''logos'', "speech") is that branch of philosophy which deals with the conditions under which scientific knowledge can be obtained and the methods for achieving such knowledge.<ref>The term is believed to have been coined by the Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in his ''Institutes of Metaphysic'' (p.46), of 1854; see Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''[https://www.iep.utm.edu/ferrier/ James Frederick Ferrier (1808—1864)]''. [[:wikipedia:James Frederick Ferrier|Wikipedia]]</ref> The term specifically indicates that part of gnoseology which studies the foundations, validity and limits of scientific knowledge. In English-speaking countries, the concept of epistemology is instead mainly used as a synonym for gnoseology or knowledge theory — the discipline that deals with the study of knowledge.

'''認識論'''（來自希臘語ἐπιστήμη，''epistème''，“某些知識”或“科學”，以及λόγος，''logos'''，“演講”）是哲學的一個分支，它處理 獲得科學知識的條件以及獲得這些知識的方法。<ref>這個詞被認為是由蘇格蘭哲學家詹姆斯弗雷德里克費里爾在他的“形而上學研究所”中創造的 (p.46), of 1854; see Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''[https://www.iep.utm.edu/ferrier/ James Frederick Ferrier (1808—1864)]''. [[:wikipedia:James Frederick Ferrier|Wikipedia]]</ref> The term specifically indicates that part of gnoseology which studies the foundations, validity and limits of scientific knowledge. In English-speaking countries, the concept of epistemology is instead mainly used as a synonym for gnoseology or knowledge theory — the discipline that deals with the study of knowledge.

Incidentally, the basic problem of epistemology today, as in Hume’s time, remains that of verifiability.<ref>[[:wikipedia:David Hume|David Hume]] (Edimburgh, 7 may 1711 – Edimburgh, 25 august 1776) was a Scottish philosopher. He is considered the third and perhaps the most radical of the British Empiricists, after the Englishman John Locke and the Anglo-Irish George Berkeley.</ref><ref>{{cita libro  

Incidentally, the basic problem of epistemology today, as in Hume’s time, remains that of verifiability.<ref>[[:wikipedia:David Hume|David Hume]] (Edimburgh, 7 may 1711 – Edimburgh, 25 august 1776) was a Scottish philosopher. He is considered the third and perhaps the most radical of the British Empiricists, after the Englishman John Locke and the Anglo-Irish George Berkeley.</ref><ref>{{cita libro